Straight Talk About Communication Research Methods
Edition: 3
Copyright: 2017
Pages: 446
Edition: 3
Copyright: 2017
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Researchers are like detectives. Both are trying to find something out. Both are asking and answering questions. Both are trying to put together a puzzle to come up with a solution. In both, answering questions leads to more questions. And, in both, seeing patterns is crucial to solving the puzzle.
Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods presents the foundations of research methods, the choices scholars make, and the methodological decisions driving communication scholarship to balance one’s desire to know and inquire into interesting communication questions while instilling an enthusiasm about the process!
Featuring a student friendly writing style, Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods is built on adult learning theory – information is given in small chunks that build upon each other, repeating then expanding knowledge.
Featuring updated information and examples, the new third edition of Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods:
- Is Modern! The text includes material on conducting research on, and involving, social and digital media.
- Is Practical! Examples of how students might use communication research methods in business and industry jobs after graduation are integrated throughout.
- Is Groundbreaking! The text features four chapters that summarize new qualitative research methods along with comprehensive instructions on how to conduct these research methods.
- Is Interactive! A seamlessly integrated enhanced learning package provides both students and instructors access to online content, interactive exercises and more.
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Chapter 1: What Is Communication Research?
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Will You Do with the Information You Learn in this Course?
What Is Research?
Research
Communication as Social Research
Communication as Humanities Research
Communication as Critical or Cultural Research
How Is Research Knowledge Distributed?
Academic Publishing
Social Dialogue and Public Policy
Communication in the Popular Press
How Do We Know What We Know?
Where Does Knowledge Come From?
Experience
Tenacity
Authority
Traditions, Customs, and Faith
Magic, Superstition, and/or Mysticism
Intuition or Hunches
A Priori Reasoning
What’s Wrong with Everyday Ways of Knowing?
Accuracy
Overgeneralization
Cognitive Conservatism
Contradictory Knowledge
Scientific Reasoning
What Do Communication Researchers Do?
What Specific Areas Do Communication Researchers Study?
Scholarly Research
Applied Research
Nothing as Practical as a Good Theory
What Are Some Examples of Communication Research?
Where Do Communication Researchers Study?
In Businesses and Organizations
In Media
In Health Care
In Interpersonal Interactions
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 2: Metatheoretical Considerations, Research Perspectives, and Research Paradigms
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Are the Goals and Methods of Communication Scholars and Everyday Observers?
Metatheoretical Considerations
Ontology
Epistemology
Axiology
Research Perspectives and Paradigms
Positivism
Interpretivism
Critical Perspective
Types of Research
Proprietary Research
Scholarly Research
Characteristics of Scholarly Research
Two Logical Systems
Inductive Model
Deductive Model
Model of Deduction/Induction
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 3: Discovering What’s Already Known: Library Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Are the Purposes of Library Research?
Types of Research
Primary Research
Secondary Research
Phases of Research
Using Library Research to Come Up with Your Research Question
Research Sources
Scholarly Journals
How Do You Access Scholarly Journals?
Finding Research Sources Using Search Strategies
Evaluating Research Sources
How to Read a Journal Article
Taking Notes on Research
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Writing a Literature Review
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What’s the Purpose of a Literature Review?
What Is a Literature Review?
Annotated Bibliography versus Synthesis of the Literature
Organizing the Literature Review
Citations
Avoiding Plagiarism
Writing Styles
American Psychological Association (APA) Style (6th edition, 2nd printing)
Body of the Paper
Reference List
In-Text Citations
Modern Language Association (MLA) Style (8th edition)
Chicago Style (16th edition)
Common Grammatical Errors
So What?
Glossary
References
PART 2: PREPARING TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
Chapter 5: Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Do You Design Good Quality Research through Appropriate Questions and Hypotheses?
What Are the Functions of Theory, Research Objectives, Research Questions, and Hypotheses?
What Are Research Objectives?
How Do You Ask Research Questions?
Types of Research Questions about Communication
Questions of Definition
Questions of Fact
What Are Research Hypotheses?
Null Hypotheses
Forms of Relationships in Hypotheses
Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses
How Do You Set Up Good Research Questions?
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
What Are the Boundaries of Research Questions and Hypotheses?
How Is Metatheory Related to Research Questions and Hypotheses?
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 6: Understanding Research Ethics
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Do We Care about Human Subjects Protection?
How Do We Follow Research Ethics and Ethical Guidelines?
Respect for Persons and Informed Consent
Nonmaleficence and Beneficence
Justice
Including Participants in Co-Constructed Research
Ethics in Reporting Findings
Who Oversees Research Ethics? Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
How Do We Maintain Ethics through all Research Phases?
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 7: Understanding Variables
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is the Function of Variables in Communication Research?
What Is a Variable?
Revisiting Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
Measured Operational Definitions
Experimental Operational Definitions
Operationalizing: Matching Your Variables to Your Study
Conceptual Fit
Measuring Variables
Self-Report
Social Desirability Bias in Self-Report data
Other Report
Limitations in Other Reports
Observing Behavior
Hawthorne Effect Bias in Observing Behaviors
Triangulation
Measurement
Nominal Level Measurement
Ordinal Level Measurement
Interval Level Measurement
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Ratio Level Measurement
Types of Variables
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
Mediating Variables
Moderating Variables
The Different Types of Relationships between Variables
Reversible and Irreversible Relationships
Deterministic and Stochastic Relationships
Sequential and Coextensive Relationships
Sufficient and Contingent Relationships
Necessary and Substitutable Relationships
The Dimensions of Variables
Unidimensional Concepts
Multidimensional Concepts
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 8: Understanding Sampling
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Important Is Sampling?
Sampling Theory
Generalizability and Representation
Sampling Frame
Unit of Analysis or Sampling Units
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Sampling Methods
Random Sampling
Simple Random Sample
Systematic Random Sample
Stratified Sample
Proportional Stratified Sample
Cluster Sampling
Nonrandom Sampling
Convenience Sample
Volunteer Sample
Snowball Sampling
Network Sampling
Advantages and Disadvantages
Response Rate and Refusal Rate
Sample Size and Power
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Sampling Methods
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Maximum Variation Sampling
Theoretical Construct Sampling
Typical and Extreme Instance Sampling
Sample Size and Data Saturation
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 9: Ensuring Validity, Reliability, and Credibility
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Thinking about the Quality of Your Observations
What Is Reliable? What Is Valid? What Is Credible?
Reliability
Physical and Social Measurement
Random Error
Types of Reliability
Test-Retest
Alternate Form
Split-Half
Item-Total
Inter-Coder
Reliability Statistics
Validity
Knowing What You Are Measuring
Face Validity
Criterion Validity
Predictive Validity
Concurrent Validity
Construct Validity
Convergent Validity
Discriminant Validity
Validity and Reliability Examples
Problems with Participants and Procedures
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Hawthorne Effect
External Validity Threats
Ecological Validity Threats
Credibility
Member Checks
Data Triangulation
Credible Data Gathering, Coding, and Writing
Peer Reviews
So What?
Glossary
References
PART 3: RESEARCH UNDER THE QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Surveys?
Survey Research
Applications of Survey Research
Survey Research Measuring Attitudes
Survey Research Measuring Retrospective Behaviors
Political Polls
Evaluation Research
Market Research
Design Concerns
Sampling
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Trend Study
Cohort Study
Panel Study
Measurement Techniques
Constructing a Survey Questionnaire
Writing Survey Questions
Strategies for Questions
Types of Questions
Structure and Arrangement of Questions
How to Choose the Right Format
Survey Administration
Researcher-Administered
Self-Administered
Interviews
Relative Pros/Cons of Different Survey Methods
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 11: Quantitative Analysis of Text and Words: Content and Interaction Analysis
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Exploring Quantitative Content Analysis
Why Analyze Content?
Content Analysis Versus Interaction Analysis
Content Structure
Distributional Structure
Interactive Structure
Sequential Structure
Content Analysis Logic
Unitizing
Sampling Units
Recording Units
Context Units
Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Reliability
Coder Training
Inter-coder Reliability
An Example of the Content Analysis Process
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 12: Experiments
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is an Experiment?
Independent and Dependent Variables
What Are Independent Variables?
What Are Dependent Variables?
Good Questions for Experiments
Understanding Experimental Notation and Language
Observation
Induction
Random Assignment
Terminology
Designs and Validity
Preexperimental Designs
One Shot Case Study Design
One Group Pretest Posttest Design
Static Group Comparison Design
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Time-Series Design
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Multiple Time-Series Design
True Experimental Designs
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Solomon Four-Group Design
Factorial Design
Field and Natural Experiments
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 13: Writing, Analyzing, and Critiquing Quantitative Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Now That I Have My Quantitative Data, What Do I Do with It? Statistical Analysis of Quantitative Data
Know Your Variables, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
Describing or Summarizing Your Variables
Measures of Central Tendency
Frequencies and Visual Representation of Data
Measures of Dispersion
Comparing Groups to See if They Are the Same or Different
Nominal Data
Ordinal Data
Interval or Ratio (Scale) Data
Testing for Relationships (Association) between Two or More Variables
Nominal Data
Ordinal Data
Ratio Data
Specific Uses of Statistical Analysis
Content Analysis
Survey Research
t-Test Example
Regression Example
Experiments
Chi Square Example
Analysis of Variance Example
Writing Quantitative Findings
General Information about Quantitative Writing
Elements of the Paper
Introduction and Literature Review
RQs or H
Method
Results
Discussion
Evaluating and Critiquing Quantitative Research
So What?
Glossary
References
PART 4: RESEARCH UNDER THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
Chapter 14: Introduction to Qualitative communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Qualitative Approaches to Research
Qualitative Communication Research Paradigms
Social Science Paradigm
Social Constructionist Paradigm
Arts and Humanities Paradigm
Rhetorical Paradigm
Interpretive Research
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Research Questions or Study Objectives in Qualitative Research
The Role of Theory in Qualitative Research
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Data Collection in Qualitative Research
Observations
Types of observers
Types of observations
What observers observe
Field notes
In-Depth Interviews
Types of Interviews
Types of Questions
Interviewing Tips
Listening in an Interview
Probing and Clarifying
Challenges to Interviewing
Data Transcription
Challenges to Transcription
Texts and Artifacts
Ethics in Qualitative Research
Human Subjects Protection
Caring for Participants
Reflexivity
Participants as Co-Researchers
Analyzing and Writing Qualitative Research
Coding
Reading the Data and Making Analytical Notations
Developing a Code List
Coding your Data
Card Pile Sort Approach to Coding
Methods of Categorizing
Thematic Analysis
Analysis by Sensitizing Concepts
Frame Analysis
Social Network Analysis
Event Analysis
Schema Analysis
Interpretive Thematic Analysis
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Writing Qualitative Findings
Summary or Traditional Method of Writing
Dramatic or Scenic Method of Writing
Writing Performance Texts
Evaluating and Critiquing Qualitative Research
Ethical Criteria
Significance Criteria
RQ Criteria
Design/Methodology Criteria
Sampling Criteria
Data Collection Criteria
Analysis Criteria
Writing Criteria
Credibility Criteria
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 15: Social Science Qualitative Approaches to Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Social Science Paradigm
Ethnography
Chicago School of Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Ethnography of Communication
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Ethnography
The Role of Theory in Ethnographic Research
Sampling in Ethnography
Selecting and accessing a field site
Ethical Concerns Specific to Ethnographic Research
Data Collection in Ethnography
Analysis in Ethnography
Writing Ethnographic Findings
Examples of Ethnography
Focus Groups
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Focus Groups
The Role of Theory in Focus Group Research
Sampling in Focus Group Research
Data Collection in Focus Groups
Focus group moderating or facilitating
Ethical Concerns Specific to Focus Group Research
Analyzing Focus Groups
Writing/Presenting the Findings of Focus Group Research
Scholarly Examples of Focus Group Research
Industry Examples of Focus Group Research
Grounded Theory
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Grounded Theory Research
The Role of Theory in Grounded Theory Research
Sampling in Grounded Theory Research
Data Collection in Grounded Theory Research
Coding and Analysis in Grounded Theory Research
Writing Grounded Theory Findings
Examples of Grounded Theory Research
Phenomenology
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Phenomenology
Sampling in Phenomenology
Data Collection in Phenomenology
Analysis in Phenomenology
Writing the Findings in Phenomenology
Examples of Phenomenology
Case Study
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Case Studies
Sampling in Case Study Research
Data Collection in Case Study Research
Analysis and Reporting Case Study Research
Examples of Case Study Research
Discourse Analysis
Research Questions Addressed by Discourse Analysis
Data Collection in Discourse Analysis
Coding in Discourse Analysis
Writing Discourse Analysis Findings
Examples of Discourse Analysis
Conversation Analysis (CA)
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Conversation Analysis
Sampling in Conversation Analysis
Data Collection in Conversation Analysis
Transcription in Conversation Analysis (CA)
Coding in Conversation Analysis (CA)
Writing CA Findings
Examples of Conversation Analysis
Qualitative Content Analysis
Sampling in Qualitative Content Analysis
Coding in Qualitative Content Analysis
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 16: Social Constructionist and Arts-Based Qualitative Approaches to Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Social Constructionist Paradigm
Characteristics of Research Under the Social Constructionist Paradigm
Autoethnography and Personal Narratives
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Autoethnography
The Role of Theory in Autoethnographic Research
Ethical Concerns Specific to Autoethnography
Sampling and Data Collection in Autoethnography
Analysis in Autoethnography
Examples of Autoethnography
Critical and Feminist Ethnography
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Critical Ethnography
How Critical Ethnography Uses/Incorporates Theory
Ethical Concerns Specific to Critical Ethnography
Data Collection in Critical Ethnography
Analysis and Writing in Critical Ethnography
Communication Activism and CBPR
Examples of Critical and Feminist Ethnography
Holistic Ethnography
Digital and Online Ethnography
Appropriate Research Questions for Digital Ethnography
Ethical Considerations for Digital Ethnography
Data Collection in Digital Ethnography
Analysis and Reporting in Digital Ethnography
Examples of Digital Ethnography
Arts-Based Paradigm
Characteristics of Research Under the Arts-Based Paradigm
Performance Studies
Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Research Questions Appropriate for Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Ethical Issues in Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Data Collection in Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Analysis in Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Writing Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Performative Writing
Examples of Performative Writing
Poetic Ethnography
Fiction as Method
Documentary, Video, or Visual Ethnography
Other Types of Arts-Based Research Methods
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 17: Rhetorical Approaches to Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Words
Chapter Objectives
Characteristics of Rhetorical Criticism
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Rhetorical Criticism
Data in Rhetorical Criticism
Writing Rhetorical Criticism
Aristotelian Rhetoric
Narratives and Rhetorical Criticism
Burkean Criticism
Cultural Criticism
Semiotics
Rhetorical Criticism in the Workplace
So What?
Glossary
References
Appendices
Appendix A: Writing Research Proposals
Appendix B: Sample Informed Consent Form
Appendix C: How Your Objective, Research Question, and/or Hypothesis Relates to Your Methodology
Appendix D: Statistics Decision Chart
Appendix E: Style Manual Summary (APA, MLA, Chicago)
Index
Christine Davis is Professor at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Her area of academic expertise is in Communication Studies, specializing in the intersection of family, culture, and health communication. Dr. Davis publishes regularly on topics such as children’s health, end-of-life communication, disability, and qualitative research methods. Her preferred methodologies are autoethnography, narrative, and critical ethnography. She has over 30 years of research and corporate consulting experience, including as owner of a national marketing research firm and executive director of a nonprofit for older adults. She obtained all three of her degrees in Communication Studies. Her BA is from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (more commonly known as Virginia Tech), her M.A. is from the University of North Carolina–Greensboro, and her Ph.D. is from the University of South Florida. Christine has a loving husband, a wonderful daughter and son-in-law, the most adorable grandson ever, and an awesome Sheltie named Maggie. In addition to conducting research and teaching, she loves to sail, hike, jog, and swim.
Ken Lachlan is Associate Professor at the Department of Communication at the University of Connecticut. Prior to his academic career, he worked in public radio and television promotions for several years. His research interests include the psychological effects of mass media, health and risk communication, social robotics, and new media technologies. Recent publications have appeared in the Computers in Human Behavior, Media Psychology, and the Journal of Applied Communication Research, to name a few. Ken considers himself mostly a quantitative scholar, preferring experimental and survey methodologies in investigating his areas of interest. He has also served as a consultant statistician for various companies and government agencies. He holds a dual B.A. in Communication and Sociology from Wake Forest, an M.A. in Mass Communication from Bowling Green State University, and a Ph.D. in Communication from Michigan State. An avid jogger and diehard hockey fan, Ken lives in Hartford, CT with his wife and their cat.
I LOVE Straight Talk About Communication Research Methods and students do, too! This course MUST engage students, not turn them off! I love your approach. The book delivers on the title's promise by engaging students with a simple conversational style about important complex concepts and issues. My students especially appreciate the copious examples that complement our applied program.I think this will be my third time using your book. Thank you!
Donnalyn Pompper, Associate Professor, Temple University
Straight Talk about Communication Methods is unique in that it is comprehensive in scope, but succinct to allow the undergraduate to read a chapter in one sitting. The authors use illustrations throughout the text that most students can relate to. The text allows the instructor to use the book to supplement lecture, rather than other text books that have been written with the goal of having instructors lecture from the book. The integration of SPSS throughout some of the chapters also removes the apprehension students have with using the program without supervision.
Patric Spence, Univeristy of Kentucky
Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods works wonders with my undergraduate students...especially those especially fearful of anything to do with statistics. It is filled with examples and practical hands-on materials that are a must for anyone hoping to get their students to not only understand research methods but also to actually enjoy it.
Marian L. Houser, Texas State University-San Marcos
Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods is what every research methods instructor and undergraduate communication student needs. It is clearly written, methodologically comprehensive, and contains plenty of examples from published journal articles in the field.
Valerie Young, Assistant Professor, Department of Communication, Hanover College
I used Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods with my online / independent study course over the summer. I’ve been so impressed - and have heard such great feedback from the students! I’ll be using this publication in all my future methods courses.
Dr. Emily Kofoed - Assistant Professor of Communication
University of South Carolina Upstate
Researchers are like detectives. Both are trying to find something out. Both are asking and answering questions. Both are trying to put together a puzzle to come up with a solution. In both, answering questions leads to more questions. And, in both, seeing patterns is crucial to solving the puzzle.
Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods presents the foundations of research methods, the choices scholars make, and the methodological decisions driving communication scholarship to balance one’s desire to know and inquire into interesting communication questions while instilling an enthusiasm about the process!
Featuring a student friendly writing style, Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods is built on adult learning theory – information is given in small chunks that build upon each other, repeating then expanding knowledge.
Featuring updated information and examples, the new third edition of Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods:
- Is Modern! The text includes material on conducting research on, and involving, social and digital media.
- Is Practical! Examples of how students might use communication research methods in business and industry jobs after graduation are integrated throughout.
- Is Groundbreaking! The text features four chapters that summarize new qualitative research methods along with comprehensive instructions on how to conduct these research methods.
- Is Interactive! A seamlessly integrated enhanced learning package provides both students and instructors access to online content, interactive exercises and more.
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Chapter 1: What Is Communication Research?
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Will You Do with the Information You Learn in this Course?
What Is Research?
Research
Communication as Social Research
Communication as Humanities Research
Communication as Critical or Cultural Research
How Is Research Knowledge Distributed?
Academic Publishing
Social Dialogue and Public Policy
Communication in the Popular Press
How Do We Know What We Know?
Where Does Knowledge Come From?
Experience
Tenacity
Authority
Traditions, Customs, and Faith
Magic, Superstition, and/or Mysticism
Intuition or Hunches
A Priori Reasoning
What’s Wrong with Everyday Ways of Knowing?
Accuracy
Overgeneralization
Cognitive Conservatism
Contradictory Knowledge
Scientific Reasoning
What Do Communication Researchers Do?
What Specific Areas Do Communication Researchers Study?
Scholarly Research
Applied Research
Nothing as Practical as a Good Theory
What Are Some Examples of Communication Research?
Where Do Communication Researchers Study?
In Businesses and Organizations
In Media
In Health Care
In Interpersonal Interactions
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 2: Metatheoretical Considerations, Research Perspectives, and Research Paradigms
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Are the Goals and Methods of Communication Scholars and Everyday Observers?
Metatheoretical Considerations
Ontology
Epistemology
Axiology
Research Perspectives and Paradigms
Positivism
Interpretivism
Critical Perspective
Types of Research
Proprietary Research
Scholarly Research
Characteristics of Scholarly Research
Two Logical Systems
Inductive Model
Deductive Model
Model of Deduction/Induction
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 3: Discovering What’s Already Known: Library Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Are the Purposes of Library Research?
Types of Research
Primary Research
Secondary Research
Phases of Research
Using Library Research to Come Up with Your Research Question
Research Sources
Scholarly Journals
How Do You Access Scholarly Journals?
Finding Research Sources Using Search Strategies
Evaluating Research Sources
How to Read a Journal Article
Taking Notes on Research
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Writing a Literature Review
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What’s the Purpose of a Literature Review?
What Is a Literature Review?
Annotated Bibliography versus Synthesis of the Literature
Organizing the Literature Review
Citations
Avoiding Plagiarism
Writing Styles
American Psychological Association (APA) Style (6th edition, 2nd printing)
Body of the Paper
Reference List
In-Text Citations
Modern Language Association (MLA) Style (8th edition)
Chicago Style (16th edition)
Common Grammatical Errors
So What?
Glossary
References
PART 2: PREPARING TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
Chapter 5: Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Do You Design Good Quality Research through Appropriate Questions and Hypotheses?
What Are the Functions of Theory, Research Objectives, Research Questions, and Hypotheses?
What Are Research Objectives?
How Do You Ask Research Questions?
Types of Research Questions about Communication
Questions of Definition
Questions of Fact
What Are Research Hypotheses?
Null Hypotheses
Forms of Relationships in Hypotheses
Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses
How Do You Set Up Good Research Questions?
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
What Are the Boundaries of Research Questions and Hypotheses?
How Is Metatheory Related to Research Questions and Hypotheses?
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 6: Understanding Research Ethics
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Do We Care about Human Subjects Protection?
How Do We Follow Research Ethics and Ethical Guidelines?
Respect for Persons and Informed Consent
Nonmaleficence and Beneficence
Justice
Including Participants in Co-Constructed Research
Ethics in Reporting Findings
Who Oversees Research Ethics? Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
How Do We Maintain Ethics through all Research Phases?
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 7: Understanding Variables
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is the Function of Variables in Communication Research?
What Is a Variable?
Revisiting Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
Measured Operational Definitions
Experimental Operational Definitions
Operationalizing: Matching Your Variables to Your Study
Conceptual Fit
Measuring Variables
Self-Report
Social Desirability Bias in Self-Report data
Other Report
Limitations in Other Reports
Observing Behavior
Hawthorne Effect Bias in Observing Behaviors
Triangulation
Measurement
Nominal Level Measurement
Ordinal Level Measurement
Interval Level Measurement
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Ratio Level Measurement
Types of Variables
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
Mediating Variables
Moderating Variables
The Different Types of Relationships between Variables
Reversible and Irreversible Relationships
Deterministic and Stochastic Relationships
Sequential and Coextensive Relationships
Sufficient and Contingent Relationships
Necessary and Substitutable Relationships
The Dimensions of Variables
Unidimensional Concepts
Multidimensional Concepts
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 8: Understanding Sampling
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
How Important Is Sampling?
Sampling Theory
Generalizability and Representation
Sampling Frame
Unit of Analysis or Sampling Units
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Sampling Methods
Random Sampling
Simple Random Sample
Systematic Random Sample
Stratified Sample
Proportional Stratified Sample
Cluster Sampling
Nonrandom Sampling
Convenience Sample
Volunteer Sample
Snowball Sampling
Network Sampling
Advantages and Disadvantages
Response Rate and Refusal Rate
Sample Size and Power
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Sampling Methods
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Maximum Variation Sampling
Theoretical Construct Sampling
Typical and Extreme Instance Sampling
Sample Size and Data Saturation
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 9: Ensuring Validity, Reliability, and Credibility
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Thinking about the Quality of Your Observations
What Is Reliable? What Is Valid? What Is Credible?
Reliability
Physical and Social Measurement
Random Error
Types of Reliability
Test-Retest
Alternate Form
Split-Half
Item-Total
Inter-Coder
Reliability Statistics
Validity
Knowing What You Are Measuring
Face Validity
Criterion Validity
Predictive Validity
Concurrent Validity
Construct Validity
Convergent Validity
Discriminant Validity
Validity and Reliability Examples
Problems with Participants and Procedures
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Hawthorne Effect
External Validity Threats
Ecological Validity Threats
Credibility
Member Checks
Data Triangulation
Credible Data Gathering, Coding, and Writing
Peer Reviews
So What?
Glossary
References
PART 3: RESEARCH UNDER THE QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM
Chapter 10: Survey Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Why Surveys?
Survey Research
Applications of Survey Research
Survey Research Measuring Attitudes
Survey Research Measuring Retrospective Behaviors
Political Polls
Evaluation Research
Market Research
Design Concerns
Sampling
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Trend Study
Cohort Study
Panel Study
Measurement Techniques
Constructing a Survey Questionnaire
Writing Survey Questions
Strategies for Questions
Types of Questions
Structure and Arrangement of Questions
How to Choose the Right Format
Survey Administration
Researcher-Administered
Self-Administered
Interviews
Relative Pros/Cons of Different Survey Methods
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 11: Quantitative Analysis of Text and Words: Content and Interaction Analysis
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Exploring Quantitative Content Analysis
Why Analyze Content?
Content Analysis Versus Interaction Analysis
Content Structure
Distributional Structure
Interactive Structure
Sequential Structure
Content Analysis Logic
Unitizing
Sampling Units
Recording Units
Context Units
Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Reliability
Coder Training
Inter-coder Reliability
An Example of the Content Analysis Process
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 12: Experiments
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
What Is an Experiment?
Independent and Dependent Variables
What Are Independent Variables?
What Are Dependent Variables?
Good Questions for Experiments
Understanding Experimental Notation and Language
Observation
Induction
Random Assignment
Terminology
Designs and Validity
Preexperimental Designs
One Shot Case Study Design
One Group Pretest Posttest Design
Static Group Comparison Design
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Time-Series Design
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Multiple Time-Series Design
True Experimental Designs
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Solomon Four-Group Design
Factorial Design
Field and Natural Experiments
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 13: Writing, Analyzing, and Critiquing Quantitative Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Now That I Have My Quantitative Data, What Do I Do with It? Statistical Analysis of Quantitative Data
Know Your Variables, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
Describing or Summarizing Your Variables
Measures of Central Tendency
Frequencies and Visual Representation of Data
Measures of Dispersion
Comparing Groups to See if They Are the Same or Different
Nominal Data
Ordinal Data
Interval or Ratio (Scale) Data
Testing for Relationships (Association) between Two or More Variables
Nominal Data
Ordinal Data
Ratio Data
Specific Uses of Statistical Analysis
Content Analysis
Survey Research
t-Test Example
Regression Example
Experiments
Chi Square Example
Analysis of Variance Example
Writing Quantitative Findings
General Information about Quantitative Writing
Elements of the Paper
Introduction and Literature Review
RQs or H
Method
Results
Discussion
Evaluating and Critiquing Quantitative Research
So What?
Glossary
References
PART 4: RESEARCH UNDER THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
Chapter 14: Introduction to Qualitative communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Qualitative Approaches to Research
Qualitative Communication Research Paradigms
Social Science Paradigm
Social Constructionist Paradigm
Arts and Humanities Paradigm
Rhetorical Paradigm
Interpretive Research
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Research Questions or Study Objectives in Qualitative Research
The Role of Theory in Qualitative Research
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Data Collection in Qualitative Research
Observations
Types of observers
Types of observations
What observers observe
Field notes
In-Depth Interviews
Types of Interviews
Types of Questions
Interviewing Tips
Listening in an Interview
Probing and Clarifying
Challenges to Interviewing
Data Transcription
Challenges to Transcription
Texts and Artifacts
Ethics in Qualitative Research
Human Subjects Protection
Caring for Participants
Reflexivity
Participants as Co-Researchers
Analyzing and Writing Qualitative Research
Coding
Reading the Data and Making Analytical Notations
Developing a Code List
Coding your Data
Card Pile Sort Approach to Coding
Methods of Categorizing
Thematic Analysis
Analysis by Sensitizing Concepts
Frame Analysis
Social Network Analysis
Event Analysis
Schema Analysis
Interpretive Thematic Analysis
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Writing Qualitative Findings
Summary or Traditional Method of Writing
Dramatic or Scenic Method of Writing
Writing Performance Texts
Evaluating and Critiquing Qualitative Research
Ethical Criteria
Significance Criteria
RQ Criteria
Design/Methodology Criteria
Sampling Criteria
Data Collection Criteria
Analysis Criteria
Writing Criteria
Credibility Criteria
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 15: Social Science Qualitative Approaches to Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Social Science Paradigm
Ethnography
Chicago School of Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Ethnography of Communication
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Ethnography
The Role of Theory in Ethnographic Research
Sampling in Ethnography
Selecting and accessing a field site
Ethical Concerns Specific to Ethnographic Research
Data Collection in Ethnography
Analysis in Ethnography
Writing Ethnographic Findings
Examples of Ethnography
Focus Groups
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Focus Groups
The Role of Theory in Focus Group Research
Sampling in Focus Group Research
Data Collection in Focus Groups
Focus group moderating or facilitating
Ethical Concerns Specific to Focus Group Research
Analyzing Focus Groups
Writing/Presenting the Findings of Focus Group Research
Scholarly Examples of Focus Group Research
Industry Examples of Focus Group Research
Grounded Theory
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Grounded Theory Research
The Role of Theory in Grounded Theory Research
Sampling in Grounded Theory Research
Data Collection in Grounded Theory Research
Coding and Analysis in Grounded Theory Research
Writing Grounded Theory Findings
Examples of Grounded Theory Research
Phenomenology
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Phenomenology
Sampling in Phenomenology
Data Collection in Phenomenology
Analysis in Phenomenology
Writing the Findings in Phenomenology
Examples of Phenomenology
Case Study
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Case Studies
Sampling in Case Study Research
Data Collection in Case Study Research
Analysis and Reporting Case Study Research
Examples of Case Study Research
Discourse Analysis
Research Questions Addressed by Discourse Analysis
Data Collection in Discourse Analysis
Coding in Discourse Analysis
Writing Discourse Analysis Findings
Examples of Discourse Analysis
Conversation Analysis (CA)
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Conversation Analysis
Sampling in Conversation Analysis
Data Collection in Conversation Analysis
Transcription in Conversation Analysis (CA)
Coding in Conversation Analysis (CA)
Writing CA Findings
Examples of Conversation Analysis
Qualitative Content Analysis
Sampling in Qualitative Content Analysis
Coding in Qualitative Content Analysis
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 16: Social Constructionist and Arts-Based Qualitative Approaches to Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
Chapter Objectives
Social Constructionist Paradigm
Characteristics of Research Under the Social Constructionist Paradigm
Autoethnography and Personal Narratives
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Autoethnography
The Role of Theory in Autoethnographic Research
Ethical Concerns Specific to Autoethnography
Sampling and Data Collection in Autoethnography
Analysis in Autoethnography
Examples of Autoethnography
Critical and Feminist Ethnography
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Critical Ethnography
How Critical Ethnography Uses/Incorporates Theory
Ethical Concerns Specific to Critical Ethnography
Data Collection in Critical Ethnography
Analysis and Writing in Critical Ethnography
Communication Activism and CBPR
Examples of Critical and Feminist Ethnography
Holistic Ethnography
Digital and Online Ethnography
Appropriate Research Questions for Digital Ethnography
Ethical Considerations for Digital Ethnography
Data Collection in Digital Ethnography
Analysis and Reporting in Digital Ethnography
Examples of Digital Ethnography
Arts-Based Paradigm
Characteristics of Research Under the Arts-Based Paradigm
Performance Studies
Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Research Questions Appropriate for Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Ethical Issues in Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Data Collection in Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Analysis in Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Writing Ethnodrama and Ethnotheatre
Performative Writing
Examples of Performative Writing
Poetic Ethnography
Fiction as Method
Documentary, Video, or Visual Ethnography
Other Types of Arts-Based Research Methods
So What?
Glossary
References
Chapter 17: Rhetorical Approaches to Communication Research
Chapter Outline
Key Words
Chapter Objectives
Characteristics of Rhetorical Criticism
Appropriate Research Questions Answered by Rhetorical Criticism
Data in Rhetorical Criticism
Writing Rhetorical Criticism
Aristotelian Rhetoric
Narratives and Rhetorical Criticism
Burkean Criticism
Cultural Criticism
Semiotics
Rhetorical Criticism in the Workplace
So What?
Glossary
References
Appendices
Appendix A: Writing Research Proposals
Appendix B: Sample Informed Consent Form
Appendix C: How Your Objective, Research Question, and/or Hypothesis Relates to Your Methodology
Appendix D: Statistics Decision Chart
Appendix E: Style Manual Summary (APA, MLA, Chicago)
Index
Christine Davis is Professor at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Her area of academic expertise is in Communication Studies, specializing in the intersection of family, culture, and health communication. Dr. Davis publishes regularly on topics such as children’s health, end-of-life communication, disability, and qualitative research methods. Her preferred methodologies are autoethnography, narrative, and critical ethnography. She has over 30 years of research and corporate consulting experience, including as owner of a national marketing research firm and executive director of a nonprofit for older adults. She obtained all three of her degrees in Communication Studies. Her BA is from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (more commonly known as Virginia Tech), her M.A. is from the University of North Carolina–Greensboro, and her Ph.D. is from the University of South Florida. Christine has a loving husband, a wonderful daughter and son-in-law, the most adorable grandson ever, and an awesome Sheltie named Maggie. In addition to conducting research and teaching, she loves to sail, hike, jog, and swim.
Ken Lachlan is Associate Professor at the Department of Communication at the University of Connecticut. Prior to his academic career, he worked in public radio and television promotions for several years. His research interests include the psychological effects of mass media, health and risk communication, social robotics, and new media technologies. Recent publications have appeared in the Computers in Human Behavior, Media Psychology, and the Journal of Applied Communication Research, to name a few. Ken considers himself mostly a quantitative scholar, preferring experimental and survey methodologies in investigating his areas of interest. He has also served as a consultant statistician for various companies and government agencies. He holds a dual B.A. in Communication and Sociology from Wake Forest, an M.A. in Mass Communication from Bowling Green State University, and a Ph.D. in Communication from Michigan State. An avid jogger and diehard hockey fan, Ken lives in Hartford, CT with his wife and their cat.
I LOVE Straight Talk About Communication Research Methods and students do, too! This course MUST engage students, not turn them off! I love your approach. The book delivers on the title's promise by engaging students with a simple conversational style about important complex concepts and issues. My students especially appreciate the copious examples that complement our applied program.I think this will be my third time using your book. Thank you!
Donnalyn Pompper, Associate Professor, Temple University
Straight Talk about Communication Methods is unique in that it is comprehensive in scope, but succinct to allow the undergraduate to read a chapter in one sitting. The authors use illustrations throughout the text that most students can relate to. The text allows the instructor to use the book to supplement lecture, rather than other text books that have been written with the goal of having instructors lecture from the book. The integration of SPSS throughout some of the chapters also removes the apprehension students have with using the program without supervision.
Patric Spence, Univeristy of Kentucky
Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods works wonders with my undergraduate students...especially those especially fearful of anything to do with statistics. It is filled with examples and practical hands-on materials that are a must for anyone hoping to get their students to not only understand research methods but also to actually enjoy it.
Marian L. Houser, Texas State University-San Marcos
Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods is what every research methods instructor and undergraduate communication student needs. It is clearly written, methodologically comprehensive, and contains plenty of examples from published journal articles in the field.
Valerie Young, Assistant Professor, Department of Communication, Hanover College
I used Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods with my online / independent study course over the summer. I’ve been so impressed - and have heard such great feedback from the students! I’ll be using this publication in all my future methods courses.
Dr. Emily Kofoed - Assistant Professor of Communication
University of South Carolina Upstate